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The replacement of hunter-gatherer lifestyles by agriculture represents a pivotal change in human history and started almost 9,000 years ago in Europe. Our study combining modeling and paleogenomic data demonstrates that admixture between hunter-gatherers and farmers increased locally over time at each stage of the Neolithic expansion along the continental route.

African populations remain underrepresented in studies of human genetic diversity, despite a growing interest in understanding how they have adapted to the diverse environments they live in. In particular, understanding the genetic basis of immune adaptation to pathogens is of paramount importance in a continent such as Africa, where the burden of infectious diseases is a major public health challenge.

A comprehensive knowledge of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecular variation worldwide is essential in human population genetics research and disease association studies and is also indispensable for clinical applications such as allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation, where ensuring HLA compatibility between donors and recipients is paramount.